Pesticides and environmental injustice in the USA: root causes, current regulatory reinforcement and a path forward - BMC Public Health - BMC Public Health

Unsworth J. History of Pesticide Use. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2010. http://agrochemicals.iupac.org/index.php?option=com_sobi2&sobi2Task=sobi2Details&catid=3&sobi2Id=31. Accessed 2 Sep 2021.
7 U.S.C. § 136(a)(1); 2021. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/7/136. Accessed 19 Oct 2021.
Berkes F. Traditional ecological knowledge in perspective. Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and Cases, J.T. Inglis, Ed., Canadian Museum of Nature/International Development Research Centre, International Program on Traditional Ecological Knowledge International Development Research Centre. 1993: 1-9. ISBN 1-895926-00-9. Available here: https://library.um.edu.mo/ebooks/b10756577a.pdf.
Kinkela D. DDT and the American century: Global Health, environmental politics, and the pesticide that changed the world: University of North Carolina Press; 2011.
Mohai P, Pellow D, Roberts JT. Environmental justice. Annu Rev Environ Resour. 2009;34:405–30.
Tessum CW, Paolella DA, Chambliss SE, Apte JS, Hill JD, Marshall JD. PM 2.5 polluters disproportionately and systemically affect people of color in the United States. Sci Adv. 2021;7:eabf4491.
Williams DR, Priest N, Anderson NB. Understanding associations among race, socioeconomic status, and health: patterns and prospects. Health Psychol. 2016;35:407–11.
Atwood D, Paisley-Jones C. Pesticides industry sales and usage 2008–2012 market estimates. Washington, D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency; 2017.
Horst M, Marion A. Racial, ethnic and gender inequities in farmland ownership and farming in the U.S. Agric Hum Values. 2019;36:1–16.
Perea J. The echoes of slavery: recognizing the racist origins of the agricultural and domestic worker exclusion from the National Labor Relations act. Ohio State Law J. 2011;72:95–138.
Zatz MS, Calavita K, Gamboa E. Using and abusing Mexican farmworkers: the bracero program and the INS. Law Soc Rev. 1993;27:851.
Liebman AK, Wiggins MF, Fraser C, Levin J, Sidebottom J, Arcury TA. Occupational health policy and immigrant workers in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing sector: occupational health policy and immigrant workers. Am J Ind Med. 2013;56:975–84.
Hernandez T, Gabbard S. Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS) 2015–2016: a demographic and employment profile of United States farmworkers; 2018.
Henderson S, Wells R. Environmental racism and the contamination of black lives: a literature review. J Afr Am St. 2021;25:134–51.
Hwang J, Ding L. Unequal displacement: gentrification, racial stratification, and residential destinations in Philadelphia. Am J Sociol. 2020;126:354–406.
Coffey E, Walz K, Chizewer D, Benfer EA, Templeton MN, Weinstock R. Poisonous Homes: The Fight for Environmental Justice in Federally Assisted Housing. Shriver Center on Poverty Law and Earth Justice; 2020. Available here: https://www.povertylaw.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/environmental_justice_report_final.pdf. Accessed 8 June 2021.
Pastor M, Sadd J, Hipp J. Which came first? Toxic facilities, minority move-in, and environmental justice. J Urban Aff. 2001;23:1–21.
Mohai P, Saha R. Which came first, people or pollution? Assessing the disparate siting and post-siting demographic change hypotheses of environmental injustice. Environ Res Lett. 2015;10:115008.
De Silva DG, McComb RP, Schiller AR, Slechten A. Firm behavior and pollution in small geographies. Eur Econ Rev. 2021;136:103742.
Surgan MH, Congdon T, Primi C, Lamster S, Louis-Jacques J. Pest Control in Public Housing, Schools and Parks: Urban Children at Risk. Environmental Protection Bureau, Office of the New York State Attorney General; 2002. Available here: http://www.marketvisiontv.com/sites/default/files/pdfs/bureaus/environmental/pest_control_public_housing.pdf. Accessed 9 Aug 2021.
Bullard R, Mohai P, Saha R, Wright B. Toxic wastes and race at twenty: why race still matters after all of these years. Environmental Law. 2008;38:371–411.
Orum P, Moore R, Roberts M, Sanchez J. Who's in Danger? Race, Poverty, and Chemical Disasters. A demographic analysis of chemical disaster vulnerability zones. Environmental Justice and Health Alliance for Chemical Policy Reform, Coming Clean and Center for Effective Government; 2014. Available here: https://comingcleaninc.org/assets/media/images/Reports/Who's%20in%20Danger%20Report%20FINAL.pdf. Accessed 17 Feb 2021.
White R. Life at the Fenceline: Understanding Cumulative Health Hazards in Environmental Justice Communities. Coming Clean, The Environmental Justice Health Alliance for Chemical Policy Reform and The Campaign for Healthier Solutions; 2018. Available here: https://ej4all.org/assets/media/documents/Life%20at%20the%20Fenceline%20-%20English%20-%20Public.pdf. Accessed 2 Mar 2021.
Starbuck A, White R. Living in the Shadow of Danger: Poverty, Race and Unequal Chemical Facility Hazards. Center for Effective Government; 2016. Available here: https://www.foreffectivegov.org/sites/default/files/shadow-of-danger-highrespdf.pdf. Accessed 2 Mar 2021.
Collins MB, Munoz I, JaJa J. Linking 'toxic outliers' to environmental justice communities. Environ Res Lett. 2016;11:015004.
Ash M, Boyce JK. Racial disparities in pollution exposure and employment at US industrial facilities. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018;115:10636–41.
Broughton E. The Bhopal disaster and its aftermath: a review. Environ Health. 2005;4:6.
U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board. Pesticide Chemical Runaway Reaction - Pressure Vessel Explosion. Investigation Report, No. 2008–08-I-WV, Bayer CropScience, LP, Institute, WV, August 28, 2008. 2011. Available here: https://permanent.fdlp.gov/gpo49945/Bayer_Report_Final.pdf. Accessed 3 Sept 2021.
U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from Census Reporter Profile page for Census Tract 104, Kanawha, WV. 2019. https://censusreporter.org/profiles/14000US54039010400-census-tract-104-kanawha-wv/. Accessed 30 Jul 2021.
U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables - West Virginia. Race. Table ID: B02001. 2019. https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?t=Race%20and%20Ethnicity&g=0400000US54&tid=ACSDT1Y2019.B02001&hidePreview=false. Accessed 13 Feb 2021.
U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from Census Reporter Profile page for 40210. 2019. https://censusreporter.org/profiles/86000US40210-40210/. Accessed 30 Jul 2021.
Van Velzer R. Nearly 8 Years After Pollution Was Found, Black Leaf Site Will Be Cleaned. WFPL. 2018. Available here: https://wfpl.org/nearly-8-years-after-pollution-was-found-black-leaf-site-will-be-cleaned/. Accessed 4 Sept 2021.
U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables - Kentucky. Race. Table ID: B02001. 2019. https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?t=Race%20and%20Ethnicity&g=0400000US21&tid=ACSDT1Y2019.B02001&hidePreview=false. Accessed 13 Feb 2021.
U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables - Kentucky. Poverty Status in The Past 12 Months. Table ID: S1701. 2019. https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?t=Income%20and%20Poverty&g=0400000US21&tid=ACSST1Y2019.S1701&hidePreview=false. Accessed 13 Feb 2021.
Butler B. Richmond Superfund Site Remains Contaminated Despite EPA Cleanup. KPIX-CBS. 2012. Available here: https://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2012/01/05/contamination-at-richmond-superfind-site-worse-than-before-epa-clean-up/. Accessed 2 Mar 2021.
U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables - Richmond City, CA. ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates. Table ID: DP05. 2019. https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=richmond,%20california&tid=ACSDP1Y2019.DP05&hidePreview=false. Accessed 13 Feb 2021.
U.S. EPA. Press Release - Judge Freezes Assets and Appoints Receiver at Pesticides Distributor in St. Joseph, Missouri. 2022. https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/judge-freezes-assets-and-appoints-receiver-pesticides-distributor-st-joseph-missouri. Accessed 9 Feb 2022.
Hoffmann M. Lawsuit: Company continues to leak chemicals into water supply. News-Press NOW 2021. Available here: https://www.newspressnow.com/news/local_news/public_safety/lawsuit-company-continues-to-leak-chemicals-into-water-supply/article_e6a15b84-cfb2-11eb-bdbe-27d1523b962b.html. Accessed 9 Feb 2022.
United Nations Human Rights Council. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to food. A/HRC/34/48. 2017. Available here: https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G17/017/85/PDF/G1701785.pdf?OpenElement. Accessed 24 May 2021.
Landrigan PJ, Fuller R, Acosta NJR, Adeyi O, Arnold R, Basu N, et al. The lancet commission on pollution and health. Lancet. 2018;391:462–512.
Cushing L, Faust J, August LM, Cendak R, Wieland W, Alexeeff G. Racial/ethnic disparities in cumulative environmental health impacts in California: evidence from a statewide environmental justice screening tool (CalEnviroScreen 1.1). Am J Public Health. 2015;105:2341–8.
Donley N. Lost in the mist: how glyphosate use disproportionately threatens California's Most impoverished counties; 2015. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.17895.80800.
Weller M. There's Something in the Air, and It Causes Childhood Cancers. Californians for Pesticide Reform; 2021. Available here: https://www.pesticidereform.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/FINAL-202111-CPR-Childhood-Cancer-v4.pdf. Accessed 8 Feb 2022.
Belova A, Greco SL, Riederer AM, Olsho LEW, Corrales MA. A method to screen U.S. environmental biomonitoring data for race/ethnicity and income-related disparity. Environ Health. 2013;12:114.
Nguyen VK, Kahana A, Heidt J, Polemi K, Kvasnicka J, Jolliet O, et al. A comprehensive analysis of racial disparities in chemical biomarker concentrations in United States women, 1999–2014. Environ Int. 2020;137:105496.
Sjödin A, Jones RS, Caudill SP, Wong L-Y, Turner WE, Calafat AM. Polybrominated Diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated biphenyls, and persistent pesticides in serum from the National Health and nutrition examination survey: 2003–2008. Environ Sci Technol. 2014;48:753–60.
Attina TM, Malits J, Naidu M, Trasande L. Racial/ethnic disparities in disease burden and costs related to exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the United States: an exploratory analysis. J Clin Epidemiol. 2019;108:34–43.
Gray S, Ross Z, Walker B. Every breath You take: airborne pesticides in the San Joaquin ValleyEnvironmental Working Group; 2001.
California Environmental Health Tracking Program. Agricultural pesticide use near public schools in California. California Department of Public Health. 2014. Available here: https://trackingcalifornia.org/cms/file/agricultural-pesticides-near-schools/report. Accessed 28 Aug 2021.
Goldman P, Brimmer JK, Ruiz V. Pesticides in the Air – Kids at Risk: Petition to EPA to Protect Children From Pesticide Drift. Earthjustice and Farmworker Justice; 2009. Available here: https://earthjustice.org/sites/default/files/library/legal_docs/petition-pesticides-in-the-air-kids-at-risk.pdf. Accessed 5 Aug 2021.
Arcury TA, Chen H, Quandt SA, Talton JW, Anderson KA, Scott RP, et al. Pesticide exposure among Latinx children: comparison of children in rural, farmworker and urban, non-farmworker communities. Sci Total Environ. 2021;763:144233.
Landrigan PJ, Claudio L, Markowitz SB, Berkowitz GS, Brenner BL, Romero H, et al. Pesticides and inner-city children: exposures, risks, and prevention. Environ Health Perspect. 1999;107(suppl 3):431–7.
Julien R, Adamkiewicz G, Levy JI, Bennett D, Nishioka M, Spengler JD. Pesticide loadings of select organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticides in urban public housing. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2008;18:167–74.
Whyatt RM, Barr DB, Camann DE, Kinney PL, Barr JR, Andrews HF, et al. Contemporary-use pesticides in personal air samples during pregnancy and blood samples at delivery among urban minority mothers and newborns. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111:749–56.
Whyatt RM, Camann DE, Kinney PL, Reyes A, Ramirez J, Dietrich J, et al. Residential pesticide use during pregnancy among a cohort of urban minority women. Environ Health Perspect. 2002;110:507–14.
Muscat JE, Britton JA, Djordjevic MV, Citron ML, Kemeny M, Busch-Devereaux E, et al. Adipose concentrations of organochlorine compounds and breast cancer recurrence in Long Island, New York. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2003;12:1474–8.
Arcury TA, Grzywacz JG, Talton JW, Chen H, Vallejos QM, Galván L, et al. Repeated pesticide exposure among North Carolina migrant and seasonal farmworkers. Am J Ind Med. 2010;53:802–13. Available here: https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.20856.
Curl C, Meierotto L, Som Castellano RL. Assessment of risk factors for health disparities among Latina farm workers: Boise State University; 2020.
Runkle JD, Tovar-Aguilar JA, Economos E, Flocks J, Williams B, Muniz JF, et al. Pesticide risk perception and biomarkers of exposure in Florida female farmworkers. J Occup Environ Med. 2013;55:1286–92.
Salvatore AL, Bradman A, Castorina R, Camacho J, López J, Barr DB, et al. Occupational behaviors and farmworkers' pesticide exposure: findings from a study in Monterey county, California. Am J Ind Med. 2008;51:782–94.
Curl CL, Fenske RA, Kissel JC, Shirai JH, Moate TF, Griffith W, et al. Evaluation of take-home organophosphorus pesticide exposure among agricultural workers and their children. Environ Health Perspect. 2002;110:A787–A792. Available here: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241133/.
Cox S, Niskar AS, Narayan KMV, Marcus M. Prevalence of self-reported diabetes and exposure to Organochlorine pesticides among Mexican Americans: Hispanic health and nutrition examination survey, 1982–1984. Environ Health Perspect. 2007;115:1747–52.
Larsen AE, Gaines SD, Deschênes O. Agricultural pesticide use and adverse birth outcomes in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Nat Commun. 2017;8:302.
Forrester MB. Association between Sociodemographic factors and exposures and utilization of poison centers in Texas, 1998–2002. J Toxic Environ Health A. 2005;68:755–61.
Litovitz T, Benson BE, Youniss J, Metz E. Determinants of U.S. poison center utilization. Clin Toxicol. 2010;48:449–57.
Otaluka ON, Corrado R, Brooks DE, Nelson DB. A survey of poison center knowledge and utilization among urban and rural residents of Arizona. Toxicol Rep. 2015;2:203–4.
Feldman SR, Vallejos QM, Quandt SA, Fleischer AB, Schulz MR, Verma A, et al. Health care utilization among migrant Latino farmworkers: the case of skin disease. J Rural Health. 2009;25:98–103.
Reeves M, Schafer KS. Greater risks, fewer rights: U.S. farmworkers and pesticides. Int J Occup Environ Health. 2003;9:30–9.
McCauley LA, Anger WK, Keifer M, Langley R, Robson MG, Rohlman D. Studying health outcomes in farmworker populations exposed to pesticides. Environ Health Perspect. 2006;114:953–60.
U.S. EPA. Regulatory Impact Analysis of Worker Protection Standard for Agricultural Pesticides. Report number EPA/735/R/92/002. Biological and Economic Analysis Division Office of Pesticide Programs; 1992. Available here: https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=P100LYPD.PDF. Accessed 2 Sept 2021.
U.S. General Accounting Office. Hired Farmworkers: Health and Well-Being at Risk. Report number GAO/HRD-92-46. Human Resources Division; 1992. Available here: https://www.gao.gov/assets/hrd-92-46.pdf. Accessed 23 Apr 2021.
Stanbury M, Rosenman KD. Occupational health disparities: a state public health-based approach: occupational health disparities. Am J Ind Med. 2014;57:596–604.
Calvert GM, Beckman J, Prado JB, Bojes H, Schwartz A, Mulay P, et al. Acute occupational pesticide-related illness and injury —United States, 2007–2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;63:11–6.
Mills PK, Dodge JL, Bush J, Thompson Y, Shah P. Agricultural exposures and breast cancer among Latina in the San Joaquin Valley of California. J Occup Environ Med. 2019;61:552–8.
Marks AR, Harley K, Bradman A, Kogut K, Barr DB, Johnson C, et al. Organophosphate pesticide exposure and attention in young Mexican-American children: the CHAMACOS study. Environ Health Perspect. 2010;118:1768–74.
Sagiv SK, Bruno JL, Baker JM, Palzes V, Kogut K, Rauch S, et al. Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and functional neuroimaging in adolescents living in proximity to pesticide application. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2019;116:18347–56.
Polemi KM, Nguyen VK, Heidt J, Kahana A, Jolliet O, Colacino JA. Identifying the link between chemical exposures and breast cancer in African American women via integrated in vitro and exposure biomarker data. Toxicology. 2021;463:152964.
Codru N, Schymura MJ, Negoita S, Rej R, Carpenter DO. The Akwesasne task force on the environment. Diabetes in relation to serum levels of polychlorinated biphenyls and chlorinated pesticides in adult native Americans. Environ Health Perspect. 2007;115:1442–7.
Song Y, Chou EL, Baecker A, You N-CY, Song Y, Sun Q, et al. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals, risk of type 2 diabetes, and diabetes-related metabolic traits: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Diabetes. 2016;8:516–32.
Whyatt RM, Rauh V, Barr DB, Camann DE, Andrews HF, Garfinkel R, et al. Prenatal insecticide exposures and birth weight and length among an urban minority cohort. Environ Health Perspect. 2004;112:1125–32.
Perera FP, Rauh V, Tsai W-Y, Kinney P, Camann D, Barr D, et al. Effects of transplacental exposure to environmental pollutants on birth outcomes in a multiethnic population. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111:201–5.
Rauch SA, Braun JM, Barr DB, Calafat AM, Khoury J, Montesano MA, et al. Associations of prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticide metabolites with gestational age and birth weight. Environ Health Perspect. 2012;120:1055–60.
Eskenazi B, Harley K, Bradman A, Weltzien E, Jewell NP, Barr DB, et al. Association of in utero organophosphate pesticide exposure and fetal growth and length of gestation in an agricultural population. Environ Health Perspect. 2004;112:1116–24.
Engel SM, Bradman A, Wolff MS, Rauh VA, Harley KG, Yang JH, et al. Prenatal Organophosphorus pesticide exposure and child neurodevelopment at 24 months: an analysis of four birth cohorts. Environ Health Perspect. 2016;124:822–30.
Harley KG, Engel SM, Vedar MG, Eskenazi B, Whyatt RM, Lanphear BP, et al. Prenatal exposure to Organophosphorous pesticides and fetal growth: pooled results from four longitudinal birth cohort studies. Environ Health Perspect. 2016;124:1084–92.
Pesticide Action Network Asia Pacific. Communities in peril: global report on health impacts of pesticide use in agriculture; 2010.
Boedeker W, Watts M, Clausing P, Marquez E. The global distribution of acute unintentional pesticide poisoning: estimations based on a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2020;20:1875.
Goldmann L. Childhood Pesticide Poisoning: Information for Advocacy and Action. Report prepared for the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the World Health Organization (WHO); 2004. Available here: https://www.who.int/ceh/publications/pestpoisoning.pdf. Accessed 9 Feb 2022.
U.S. EPA. Summary of the Food Quality Protection Act. Public Law 104–170 (1996). https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-food-quality-protection-act. Accessed 19 Aug 2021.
21 U.S.C. § 346a(b)(2)(A)(ii). https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/21/346a. Accessed 21 Oct 2021.
7 U.S.C. § 136(bb). https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/7/136. Accessed 21 Oct 2021.
U.S. EPA. Revised Risk Assessment Methods for Workers, Children of Workers in Agricultural Fields, and Pesticides with No Food Uses 2009. Available here: https://www.regulations.gov/document/EPA-HQOPP-2009-0889-0002. Accessed 20 Aug 2021.
American Chemistry Council Biocides Panel. Comments on Policy Paper on Revised Risk Assessment Methods For Workers, Children of Workers in Agricultural Fields, and Pesticides with No Food Uses, Notice of Availability. 2010. https://www.regulations.gov/comment/EPA-HQ-OPP-2009-0889-0029. Accessed 30 Nov 2021.
CropLife America. Comments on EPA's Revised Risk Assessment Methods for Workers, Children of Workers in Agricultural Fields, and Pesticides with No Food Uses. 2010. https://www.regulations.gov/comment/EPA-HQ-OPP-2009-0889-0030. Accessed 30 Nov 2021.
Dow AgroSciences. Comments Of Dow Agrosciences LLC, Policy Paper On Revised Risk Assessment Methods For Workers, Children Of Workers In Agricultural Fields, And Pesticides With No Food Uses. 2010. https://www.regulations.gov/comment/EPA-HQ-OPP-2009-0889-0032. Accessed 30 Nov 2021.
Personal email communication between Nathan Donley and EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs Health Effects Division Director Dana Vogel. 2021.
Bohme SR. EPA's proposed worker protection standard and the burdens of the past. Int J Occup Environ Health. 2015;21:161–5.
U.S. EPA. Pesticides;...
Comments
Post a Comment